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A `!system programming language`! is a `F33f`_`[programming language`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Programming_language]`_`f used for `F33f`_`[system programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=System_programming]`_`f; such languages are designed for writing `F33f`_`[system software`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=System_software]`_`f, which usually requires different development approaches when compared with application software. `F33f`_`[Edsger Dijkstra`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Edsger_W._Dijkstra]`_`f referred to these languages as `!machine oriented high order languages`!, or `!mohol`!.`:cite-ref-mohlconfer-1-0[`F5bf`_`[1`#cite-note-mohlconfer-1]`_`f]

`F33f`_`[General-purpose programming languages`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=General-purpose_programming_language]`_`f tend to focus on generic features to allow programs written in the language to use the same code on different `F33f`_`[computing platforms`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Computing_platform]`_`f. Examples of such languages include `F33f`_`[ALGOL`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ALGOL]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Pascal`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pascal_(programming_language)]`_`f. This generic quality typically comes at the cost of denying direct access to the machine's internal workings, and this often has negative effects on performance.

System languages, in contrast, are designed not for compatibility, but for performance and ease of access to the underlying `F33f`_`[computer hardware`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Computer_hardware]`_`f while still providing `F33f`_`[high-level programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=High-level_programming_language]`_`f concepts like `F33f`_`[structured programming`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Structured_programming]`_`f. Examples include `F33f`_`[Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Executive_Systems_Problem_Oriented_Language]`_`f (ESPOL) and `F33f`_`[Systems Programming Language`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Systems_Programming_Language]`_`f (SPL), both of which are ALGOL-like in `F33f`_`[syntax`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Syntax_(programming_languages)]`_`f but tuned to their respective platforms. Others are `F33f`_`[cross-platform software`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cross-platform_software]`_`f, but designed to work close to the hardware, like `F33f`_`[BLISS`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=BLISS]`_`f, `F33f`_`[JOVIAL`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=JOVIAL]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[BCPL`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=BCPL]`_`f.

Some languages straddle the system and application domains, bridging the gap between these uses. The canonical example is `F33f`_`[C`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C_(programming_language)]`_`f, which is used widely for both system and application programming. `F33f`_`[PL/I`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=PL/I]`_`f was an early example. Some modern languages also do this such as `F33f`_`[Rust`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rust_(programming_language)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Swift`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Swift_(programming_language)]`_`f.

>>Contents

• `F0af`_`[Features`#features]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[History`#history]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Mid-level languages`#mid-level-languages]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Higher-level languages`#higher-level-languages]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Major languages`#major-languages]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[See also`#see-also]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Notes`#notes]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[References`#references]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[External links`#external-links]`_`f

-─

>>Features

In contrast with application languages, system programming languages typically offer more-direct access to the physical hardware of the machine: an archetypical system programming language in this sense was `F33f`_`[BCPL`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=BCPL]`_`f. System programming languages often lack built-in `F33f`_`[input/output`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Input/output]`_`f (I/O) facilities because a system-software project usually develops its own I/O mechanisms or builds on basic monitor I/O or screen management facilities. The distinction between languages used for system programming and application programming became blurred over time with the widespread popularity of `F33f`_`[PL/I`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=PL/I]`_`f, `F33f`_`[C`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C_(programming_language)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Pascal`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pascal_(programming_language)]`_`f.

>>History

The earliest system software was written in `F33f`_`[assembly language`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Assembly_language]`_`f mostly because no alternative existed, but also for reasons including efficiency of `F33f`_`[object code`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Object_code]`_`f, `F33f`_`[compiling`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Compiler]`_`f time, and ease of debugging. Application languages such as `F33f`_`[FORTRAN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=FORTRAN]`_`f were used for system programming, although they usually still required some routines to be written in assembly language.`:cite-ref-sammet-2-0[`F5bf`_`[2`#cite-note-sammet-2]`_`f]

>>>Mid-level languages

Mid-level languages "have much of the `F33f`_`[syntax`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Syntax_(programming_languages)]`_`f and facilities of a higher level language, but also provide direct access in the language (and often an assembly language) to machine features."`:cite-ref-sammet-2-1[`F5bf`_`[2`#cite-note-sammet-2]`_`f] The earliest of these was `F33f`_`[ESPOL`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Executive_Systems_Problem_Oriented_Language]`_`f on Burroughs mainframes in about 1960, followed by `F33f`_`[Niklaus Wirth`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Niklaus_Wirth]`_`f's `F33f`_`[PL360`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=PL360]`_`f (first written on a Burroughs system as a `F33f`_`[cross compiler`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cross_compiler]`_`f), which had the general syntax of `F33f`_`[ALGOL 60`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ALGOL_60]`_`f but whose statements directly manipulated CPU registers and memory. Other languages in this category include `F33f`_`[MOL-360`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=MOL-360]`_`f and `F33f`_`[PL/S`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=PL/S]`_`f.

As an example, a typical PL360 statement is `B100`F9d9R9 := R8 and R7 shll 8 or R6`f`b, signifying that registers 8 and 7 should be and'ed together, the result shifted left 8 bits, the result of that or'ed with the contents of register 6, and the final result placed into register 9.`:cite-ref-3[`F5bf`_`[3`#cite-note-3]`_`f]

>>>Higher-level languages

While PL360 is at the semantic level of assembly language, another kind of system programming language operates at a higher semantic level, but has specific extensions designed to make the language suitable for system programming. An early example of this kind of language is LRLTRAN,`:cite-ref-4[`F5bf`_`[4`#cite-note-4]`_`f] which extended Fortran with features for character and bit manipulation, pointers, and directly addressed jump tables.

Subsequently, languages such as C were developed, where the combination of features was sufficient to write system software, and a `F33f`_`[compiler`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Compiler]`_`f could be developed that generated efficient object programs on modest hardware. Such a language generally omits features that cannot be implemented efficiently, and adds a small number of machine-dependent features needed to access specific hardware abilities; `F33f`_`[inline assembly`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Inline_assembly]`_`f code, such as C's `B100`F9d9asm`f`b statement, is often used for this purpose. Although many such languages were developed,`:cite-ref-mohlconfer-1-1[`F5bf`_`[1`#cite-note-mohlconfer-1]`_`f] C and `F33f`_`[C++`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=C++]`_`f are the ones which survived.

>>Major languages

|---|---|---|---|---|

| PL/S | IBM | 1960s | PL/I | OS/360 and successors |

| Language for Systems Development (LSD) | R. Daniel Bergeron, et al. (Brown University) | 1971 | PL/I | |

| PL.8 | IBM | 1970s | PL/I | compiler development, AIX (versions 1 and 2 only), IBM mainframe firmware |

| PL-6 | Honeywell, Inc. | 1970s | PL/I | CP-6 |

| S3 | ICL | 1980s | ALGOL 68 | ICL VME |

| Ada | Jean Ichbiah , S. Tucker Taft | 1983 | ALGOL 68 , Pascal , C++ , Eiffel | Military, [ 6 ] aerospace [ 7 ] mass transportation, [ 8 ] high-integrity computation, operating system kernels, [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] iMAX 432 , BiiN/OS |

| D | Digital Mars | 2001 | C++ | |

| Nim | Andreas Rumpf | 2008 | Python , Ada , Lisp , Oberon , C++ , Modula-3 , Object Pascal | |

| Zig | Andrew Kelley | 2016 | C , C++ , LLVM IR , Go , Rust | |

>>See also

• `F33f`_`[Ousterhout's dichotomy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ousterhout's_dichotomy]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[PreScheme`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=PreScheme]`_`f

>>Notes

`:cite-note-13`!1.`! Swift uses `F33f`_`[Automatic Reference Counting`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Automatic_Reference_Counting]`_`f

>>References

`:cite-note-mohlconfer-1`!1.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-mohlconfer-1-0]`_`f `:citerefvan-der-poelmaarssen1973`avan der Poel, W. L.; Maarssen, L. A., eds. (27–31 August 1973). `*Machine oriented higher level languages`*. IFIP Working Conference on Machine Oriented Higher Level Languages (MOHL). Trondheim, Norway: International Federation for Information Processing. Proceedings published 1974.

`:cite-note-sammet-2`!2.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-sammet-2-0]`_`f `:citerefsammet1971`aSammet, Jean (October 1971). "Brief Survey of Languages Used for Systems Implementation". `*ACM SIGPLAN Notices`*. `!6`! (9): 1–19. `F33f`_`[doi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doi_(identifier)]`_`f:10.1145/942596.807055.

`:cite-note-3`!3.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-3]`_`f `:citerefwirth1968`a`F33f`_`[Wirth, Niklaus`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Niklaus_Wirth]`_`f (1968). "PL360, A Programming Language for the 360 Computers". `*Journal of the ACM`*. `!15`! (1): 37–74. `F33f`_`[doi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doi_(identifier)]`_`f:10.1145/321439.321442.

`:cite-note-4`!4.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-4]`_`f `:citerefmendicinohughesmartinmcmahon1968`aMendicino, Sam F.; Hughes, Robert A.; Martin, Jeanne T.; McMahon, Frank H.; Ranelletti, John E.; Zwakenberg, Richard G. (1968). "The LRLTRAN Compiler". `*Communications of the ACM`*. `!11`! (11): 747–755. `F33f`_`[doi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doi_(identifier)]`_`f:10.1145/364139.364154.

`:cite-note-5`!2.`! `:citerefwulfrussellhaberman1971`aWulf, W. A.; Russell, D. B.; Haberman, A. N. (December 1971). "BLISS: A Language for Systems Programming". `*Communications of the ACM`*. `!14`! (12): 780–790. `F33f`_`[CiteSeerX`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=CiteSeerX_(identifier)]`_`f 10.1.1.691.9765. `F33f`_`[doi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Doi_(identifier)]`_`f:10.1145/362919.362936.

`:cite-note-6`!3.`! "Case Study, BAE Systems Eurofighter Typhoon" (PDF).

`:cite-note-7`!4.`! "What programming languages are used for equipment onboard aircraft?".

`:cite-note-8`!5.`! "TGVweb: The TGV Signaling System".

`:cite-note-9`!6.`! "Ironclad".

`:cite-note-10`!7.`! "M2OS. RTOS with simple tasking support for small microcontrollers".

`:cite-note-11`!8.`! "Jgrivera67/HiRTOS". `*`F33f`_`[GitHub`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=GitHub]`_`f`*.

`:cite-note-12`!9.`! "Mozilla Research Projects". Archived from the original on 2014-01-04.

`:cite-note-14`!10.`! "Modular Inc." `*www.modular.com`*. Retrieved 2024-03-25.

>>External links

• `:citerefcorbat-1969`aCorbató, Fernando (1969-05-06). "PL/I as a Tool for System Programming". `*Datamation`*: 68–76. Archived from the original on 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2012-01-23.

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